Much evidence has supported the importance of transcription skills in writing ( Abbott & Berninger, 1993 Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, Graham, & Richards, 2002 Berninger et al., 1997 Graham et al., 1997 Graham & Harris, 2000 Kim et al., 2011 Kim, Al Otaiba, Sidler, & Greulich, & Puranik, 2014 Kim, Al Otaiba, Wanzek, & Gatlin, 2015 Kim, Park, & Park, 2015 Limpo & Alves, 2013 McCutchen, 1996). Lack of accuracy and fluency in transcription skills constrain writing by interfering with higher-order skills such as planning and content generation ( Bourdin & Fayol, 1994 Graham, Berninger, Abbott, Abbott, & Whitaker, 1997 McCutchen, 2000). To this end, we used data from beginning writers to test a direct and mediated model of text generation (i.e., discourse-level language), and four different variations of the direct and indirect effects models of writing (DIEW).ĭevelopmental models of writing and component skills of writingĪs writing requires written texts, transcription – the process and physical acts of representing sounds to written symbols, including spelling and handwriting skills ( McCutchen, 2000) – is necessary. In the present study, our goal was to expand the developmental models of writing by investigating component skills of text generation, and their relations to writing quality. Second, working memory was hypothesized to be at the center of these three components (text generation, transcription, and self-regulation), needed for accessing long term memory during planning and composing process and short term memory during review process ( Berninger & Winn, 2006).Īlthough highly informative, these two models lacked specificity about component skills, particularly for text generation and relations among component skills. First, executive function and self-regulatory processes (e.g., attention, goal setting, reviewing) were included, in addition to text generation and transcription skills ( Berninger & Amtmann, 2003 Berninger & Winn, 2006). The not-so-simple view of writing expanded the simple view of writing in two ways. According to the simple view of writing, writing is a product of two necessary skills, transcription and ideation (also called text generation Berninger et al., 2002 Juel, Griffth, & Gough, 1986). Two prominent models of developmental writing with empirical support include the simple view of writing and not-so-simple view of writing. Writing is one of the most complex tasks ( Olive, 2004), drawing on a large number of language and cognitive skills. These results indicate that multiple language and cognitive skills make direct and indirect contributions, and it is important to consider both direct and indirect pathways of influences when considering skills that are important to writing. The model explained approximately 67% of variance in writing quality. Total effects, including direct and indirect effects, were substantial for discourse-level oral language (.46), working memory (.43), and spelling (.37), followed by vocabulary (.19), handwriting (.17), theory of mind (.12), inference (.10), and grammatical knowledge (.10). Moreover, language and cognitive skills had both direct and indirect relations to discourse-level oral language. Discourse-level oral language, spelling, and handwriting fluency completely mediated the relations of higher-order cognitive skills, foundational oral language, and working memory to writing. Results from structural equation modeling largely supported a complete mediation model among four variations of the DIEW model. Foundational oral language skills (vocabulary and grammatical knowledge) and higher-order cognitive skills (inference and theory of mind) were hypothesized to be component skills of text generation (i.e., discourse-level oral language). In this model, working memory was hypothesized to be a foundational cognitive ability for language and cognitive skills as well as transcription skills, which, in turn, contribute to writing.
We investigated direct and indirect effects of component skills on writing (DIEW) using data from 193 children in Grade 1.
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